The Regime of Phaleas of Chalcedon

Chapter 7

Introduction to Chapter 7

In this chapter, Aristotle critiques the regime proposed by Phaleas of Chalcedon, who focuses on the equalization of property to prevent factional conflict. Aristotle discusses the limitations of Phaleas’ ideas, particularly their focus on economic equality and lack of consideration for education, military strength, and the broader aspects of political life. He also contrasts Phaleas' proposals with those of other ancient legislators and presents his own views on the causes of injustice and factional strife.

1. Overview of Phaleas of Chalcedon’s Regime (1266b)
   • Phaleas proposes a regime that prioritizes the equalization of property among citizens. This plan, according to Phaleas, would eliminate factional conflict, which he sees as primarily driven by inequalities in wealth.
   • Economic Equality as Central to Phaleas’ Regime
     • Phaleas argues that equal property distribution among citizens will reduce social conflict.
     • He believes such equality is easy to implement in newly founded cities but acknowledges that it is more challenging in established ones.
     • Solution for Existing Cities: The wealthy should give dowries but not receive them, while the poor should receive dowries without giving them, to gradually balance property distribution.
2. Aristotle’s Critique of Phaleas’ Property Equalization (1266b-1267a)
   • Plato’s Limit on Property in the Laws
     • Aristotle contrasts Phaleas’ idea with Plato’s Laws, where Plato limits property to no more than five times the size of the smallest plot.
     • Aristotle suggests that merely equalizing property is insufficient without addressing population control.
   • Importance of Population Control
     • Aristotle warns that if population growth is not regulated, property equalization will be undone.
     • Without proper regulation, wealthy citizens might become poor, leading to political instability and factional conflict.
   • Historical Precedents
     • Aristotle cites Solon’s reforms in Athens and other ancient laws that limited land ownership or restricted the sale of land.
     • In places like Leucas, the removal of such laws led to overly democratic regimes, as property assessments were no longer used to determine eligibility for public office.
3. The Necessity of Moderation in Property (1267a)
   • The Importance of Moderation
     • Property should not be too large (which encourages luxury) or too small (which results in poverty).
     • A legislator must aim for a mean, ensuring that citizens have a moderate amount of property.
   • The Role of Desire in Social Conflict
     • Even with equal property, factional conflict persists if citizens’ desires are not moderated.
     • Phaleas’ regime overlooks the need to curb excessive desires through education, which Aristotle sees as essential for maintaining social harmony.
4. The Role of Education in Phaleas’ Regime (1267a)
   • Education and Equality
     • Phaleas recognizes the importance of education and believes that equality in both property and education will prevent factionalism.
     • However, Aristotle argues that simply having the same education is insufficient. Citizens may still pursue wealth and honor to an excessive degree if they are not properly educated in moderation.
   • Injustice Beyond Necessity
     • Aristotle expands on Phaleas’ view of factional conflict by stating that humans do not commit injustice only for necessities. They also do so out of desire for pleasure and material gain.
     • Three Causes of Injustice: Necessities, pleasures, and excessive desires. Education must address all of these, not just the necessity of satisfying basic needs.
5. Remedies for Social Injustice (1267a-b)
   • Remedies for Necessities
     • For necessities, citizens should have a minimum of property and perform work that fulfills their basic needs.
   • Moderation as a Remedy for Pleasure and Desire
     • For those seeking pleasure and satisfaction beyond necessity, education in moderation is essential.
     • Those who seek enjoyment through personal excess should be directed toward philosophical pursuits to curb such desires.
   • The Greatest Injustices Arise from Excess
     • Aristotle emphasizes that the greatest injustices arise not from need, but from excess.
     • No one becomes a tyrant out of necessity (like wanting shelter from the cold), but rather from an excessive desire for wealth, power, or pleasure.
6. Military Strength and External Relations (1267b)
   • Military Preparedness
     • A well-organized regime must consider military strength and defense, not just the internal affairs of the city.
     • Property should be sufficient to support not only political life but also defense against foreign threats.
   • Balance in Property for Defense
     • The city should have enough resources to defend itself but not so much that it becomes a target for stronger neighbors.
     • Aristotle uses the example of Euboulus and Autophradates to illustrate the importance of calculating the costs of war and resources in military planning.
7. The Limitations of Property Equality (1267b)
   • Factional Conflict and the Refined Class
     • Equalizing property might reduce conflict among the lower classes, but it can provoke resentment from the more refined citizens who feel they deserve more due to their merit or status.
     • The refined may cause factional conflict if they perceive equality as unjust.
   • Human Desire is Insatiable
     • Aristotle argues that human desire is inherently unlimited. Even if property is equalized, people will always demand more.
     • He illustrates this with the example of citizens who once found a small two-obol allowance adequate, but now demand more, showing how human desires escalate without limit.
   • The Need for Respectable Leaders
     • Instead of focusing solely on property, Aristotle argues that regimes should aim to cultivate respectable leaders who do not seek to aggrandize themselves.
     • The mean citizens should be kept inferior but not treated unjustly, ensuring that social balance is maintained.
8. The Inadequacy of Equalizing Only Land (1267b)
   • Equalizing Land but Ignoring Other Forms of Wealth
     • Phaleas’ regime focuses only on equalizing land, ignoring other forms of wealth such as slaves, livestock, and movable property.
     • Aristotle argues that this approach is incomplete, as wealth extends beyond land ownership.
   • Alternative Solutions
     • There are three potential approaches to wealth: equalizing all forms of property, creating a moderate distribution, or leaving them untouched. Phaleas has chosen an inadequate solution by focusing only on land.
9. The Smallness of Phaleas’ City (1267b)
   • Public Slaves in Phaleas’ City
     • Aristotle notes that Phaleas envisions a small city where all artisans are public slaves.
     • However, in larger cities, public slaves should only be used for common tasks (as in Epidamnus or Athens). Phaleas' regime would be insufficient for a larger, more complex city.
10. Conclusion: Evaluation of Phaleas’ Regime (1267b)
    • Aristotle concludes his critique by summarizing the strengths and weaknesses of Phaleas’ proposed regime. While Phaleas offers some valuable insights, particularly regarding property equalization, his regime lacks consideration of critical factors such as military strength, external relations, and the insatiable nature of human desire. Aristotle’s critique emphasizes the need for moderation, education, and a comprehensive approach to governance that accounts for both internal harmony and external security.

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