BOOK 5 Chapter 12 Durability of Tyrannies and Refutation of Socrate's cycle of regimes

Chapter 12

I. The Short-Lived Nature of Oligarchy and Tyranny

• A. General Statement about Oligarchy and Tyranny
  • Aristotle begins by emphasizing that oligarchy and tyranny are the most short-lived political regimes. Despite their frequent occurrence, these forms of government tend to be unstable and are prone to internal decay or external overthrow. Tyrannies, in particular, often rely on oppressive measures, which hasten their downfall.
• B. Notable Exceptions to the Short-Lived Nature of Tyranny
  • While most tyrannies are short-lived, there are exceptions. Aristotle cites a few examples where tyranny endured longer than usual, offering insights into the reasons for their extended reign.
  • 1. Tyranny of Orthagoras and His Sons at Sicyon
    • The tyranny of Orthagoras and his sons lasted for 100 years, making it the longest-lasting tyranny in Greek history. This longevity is attributed to the rulers’ moderate treatment of their subjects and their adherence to the laws. In particular, Cleisthenes, one of Orthagoras's descendants, was a warlike leader, which made him hard to despise or overthrow. The rulers also made efforts to gain popularity through acts of concern for the people. Cleisthenes is said to have even rewarded a person who ruled against him in a competition, highlighting his commitment to fairness and his attempt to build goodwill among his subjects.
  • 2. Tyranny of the Cypselids at Corinth
    • The second longest tyranny was the Cypselid rule at Corinth, lasting 73 years and 6 months. Cypselus, the founder, ruled for 30 years, followed by his son Periander for 40 and a half years, and his grandson Psammetichus for three years. The reasons for the endurance of the Cypselid tyranny were similar to those in Sicyon. Cypselus was a popular leader who ruled without a bodyguard, reflecting a certain level of trust between him and the people. While Periander was more tyrannical in his methods, his military prowess made it difficult for his subjects to challenge him.
  • 3. Tyranny of the Pisistratids at Athens
    • The third notable tyranny was that of the Pisistratids at Athens. However, this tyranny was not continuous due to Pisistratus’s two exiles during his reign. In total, he ruled for 17 years out of the 33 years of his reign, while his sons ruled for 18 years after his death. Altogether, the Pisistratid tyranny lasted for 35 years. The relatively long duration of this tyranny can also be attributed to a combination of popular support and military strength.
  • 4. Tyranny of Hiero and Gelo at Syracuse
    • Another example is the tyranny of Hiero and Gelo at Syracuse, which, although notable, lasted only 18 years. Gelo ruled for 7 years and died in the eighth, while Hiero ruled for 10 years. Their reigns, though brief compared to the previous examples, represent one of the longer-lasting tyrannies in Sicily.
  • 5. General Observation on the Short Lifespan of Tyrannies
    • Despite these examples, Aristotle notes that most tyrannies are short-lived. Their reliance on force, fear, and oppression makes them inherently unstable. Tyrants must constantly fend off threats from within and outside their regimes, leading to frequent revolutions or collapses.

II. Socrates’ View on Political Revolutions in the Republic

• A. Critique of Socrates’ Theory of Political Revolutions
  • Aristotle shifts his discussion to the theory of political revolutions put forth by Socrates in Plato’s Republic. He critiques Socrates’ arguments, particularly his explanation for why political regimes undergo revolutions.
  • 1. The Role of Natural Cycles and Numbers in Revolution
    • Socrates, according to Aristotle, argues that all regimes undergo revolution due to a natural cycle, which is governed by cosmic or numerical ratios. Socrates uses a complex mathematical metaphor involving the ratio of four to three, yoked to five, to explain the inevitability of revolution. Aristotle finds this explanation unconvincing and unclear. While Socrates suggests that certain individuals, by nature, are incapable of being educated and this leads to the degeneration of the regime, Aristotle questions why this would only apply to the best regime Socrates describes, rather than to all regimes.
  • 2. Time and Simultaneous Revolutions
    • Aristotle further criticizes Socrates’ argument about time, noting that Socrates suggests revolutions happen simultaneously, even in regimes that were established at different points in time. Aristotle finds this logically flawed, asking how a regime that comes into being just before the turning point could undergo revolution at the same time as an older regime. This introduces the broader question of why all regimes, regardless of their age, would undergo revolution simultaneously according to Socratic theory.
• B. The Direction of Political Revolutions
  • Aristotle continues his critique by examining Socrates’ assertion that regimes undergo revolution in a predictable direction. Socrates claims that the best regime devolves into the Spartan regime (oligarchic aristocracy), which then devolves into oligarchy, which in turn transitions into democracy, and finally into tyranny. According to Socrates, this cycle repeats itself.
  • 1. Oppositional Revolutions
    • Aristotle argues that political revolutions tend to occur more frequently in the direction of a regime’s opposite rather than a regime that is similar. For instance, rather than evolving from democracy to tyranny, a democracy might transform into an oligarchy or another regime that directly contrasts its principles.
  • 2. Unexplained Revolutions
    • Aristotle also notes that Socrates does not adequately explain whether tyrannies undergo revolutions and, if so, into what regime they transition. By Socratic logic, tyranny would transition into the first and best regime, completing a continuous cycle. However, Aristotle points out that tyrannies can devolve into various other forms of government, including other tyrannies, oligarchies, democracies, or aristocracies, depending on the context and historical conditions.

III. Examples of Revolutions and Political Transformations

• A. Examples of Tyrannies Transforming into Other Regimes
  • Aristotle provides specific examples of tyrannies that transformed into different regimes, challenging Socrates’ cyclical model.
    • In Sicyon, for instance, the tyranny of Myron was replaced by the tyranny of Cleisthenes.
    • At Chalcis, the tyranny of Antileon transformed into an oligarchy.
    • At Syracuse, the tyranny of Gelo gave way to democracy.
    • In Lacedaemon and Carthage, tyranny evolved into aristocracy.
• B. Examples of Oligarchies Becoming Tyrannies
  • Aristotle also discusses the reverse situation—where oligarchies devolve into tyrannies. This was a common occurrence in ancient Greece, particularly in Sicily. Examples include:
    • The oligarchy at Leontini transforming into the tyranny of Panaetius.
    • The oligarchy at Gela giving way to the tyranny of Cleander.
    • The oligarchy at Rhegium transitioning into the tyranny of Anaxilaus.

These examples highlight the variety of political transformations that occur, contradicting the idea of a strict, predictable cycle.

IV. Criticism of Socrates' Views on Oligarchy

• A. Oligarchies and the Role of Wealth
  • Aristotle critiques Socrates’ explanation for why oligarchies undergo revolution. Socrates claims that oligarchies face revolution because the officeholders become greedy and focused on money-making. Aristotle finds this explanation too simplistic. He argues that in some oligarchies, laws prohibit such greed, yet these oligarchies do not necessarily undergo revolution. For instance, at Carthage, oligarchs are engaged in money-making, yet the city has not experienced a significant revolution.
• B. The Division Between Rich and Poor
  • Socrates also asserts that an oligarchic city is essentially two cities: one composed of the wealthy, and the other of the poor. Aristotle disagrees, questioning why this division should be unique to oligarchies. In many other regimes, such as Sparta, there are also unequal distributions of wealth, yet they do not experience the same internal division.
• C. Other Causes of Revolution in Oligarchies
  • Aristotle acknowledges that revolutions do occur in oligarchies, but he points out that these are often caused by other factors beyond financial mismanagement. For instance, revolutions can occur if the poor become a majority and demand a greater share in political power, or if the wealthy neglect politics and allow the multitude to seize control. Additionally, revolutions might happen if those with political power treat others with injustice or arrogance, leading to factional conflicts and sedition.

V. Criticism of Socrates’ Views on Revolution in Democracies

• A. Critique of Socratic Explanation for Revolution in Democracies
  • Socrates explains revolutions in democracies as resulting from excessive freedom, leading to a breakdown in social order. Aristotle finds this explanation incomplete, pointing out that revolutions can occur in democracies for a variety of reasons, including inequality, injustice, and the mismanagement of political power.
• B. Oversimplification of Political Types
  • Aristotle criticizes Socrates for speaking as if there is only one type of oligarchy and one type of democracy, when in fact there are many variations of these regimes. Revolutions in different types of democracies and oligarchies are driven by different causes, and Socrates' theory oversimplifies the complex dynamics of political change.

Conclusion

In Politics, Book 5, Chapter 12, Aristotle offers an extended critique of Socrates’ theory of political revolution and provides a more nuanced under-standing of how regimes transform and dissolve. Through historical examples, Aristotle shows that revolutions do not follow a simple, predictable cycle. Instead, political change is influenced by a variety of factors, including leadership style, military strength, popular support, and social divisions.

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