BOOK 6 Chapter 2 The Features of Democracy

Chapter 2

I. Introduction: Freedom as the Foundation of Democracy

• A. The Principle of Freedom
  • Aristotle begins by identifying freedom as the central premise and guiding principle of democratic regimes. He notes that in popular discourse, democracy is often synonymous with freedom, and it is commonly asserted that only in a democracy do individuals truly partake in freedom.
  • Two Aspects of Freedom:
    • 1. Rotation of Rulers: One aspect of freedom, according to Aristotle, is the ability of individuals to both rule and be ruled in turn. This rotation of governance ensures that everyone has an equal opportunity to hold authority, which aligns with the democratic notion of fairness.
    • 2. Living as One Wishes: The second aspect of freedom is the ability to live as one pleases. Aristotle highlights that this freedom of lifestyle is regarded as a hallmark of democracy, as it contrasts with the life of a slave, who is not able to live according to personal desires.

II. The Democratic View of Justice and Equality

• A. Democratic Justice Based on Numerical Equality
  • Aristotle explains that the concept of justice in democracy is based on equality of number, rather than equality based on merit. In a democracy, every citizen is considered equal in terms of participation, regardless of their abilities or contributions.
  • Authority of the Majority: This principle of numerical equality leads to the idea that the majority must have authority, since they represent the greater number of citizens. As a result, the decisions made by the majority are seen as just and final, regardless of the minority’s opinions. Thus, in democracies, the poor tend to have more power than the wealthy, simply because they are more numerous.
• B. Equality and Freedom as Democratic Ideals
  • Aristotle explains that for democracies, equality is a central value, particularly when understood as equality of participation. Everyone, regardless of social class or merit, should have an equal share in political authority.
  • Freedom and Non-Subjection: Aristotle connects this idea of equality with freedom, noting that freedom in a democracy also means not being subject to the will of others. In this sense, democratic freedom involves the right to participate equally in ruling and being ruled, thus avoiding domination by any one individual or group.

III. Democratic Institutions and Their Characteristics

• A. Popular Features of Democratic Governance
  • Aristotle outlines several key features that are characteristic of democratic regimes:
    • 1. Election from Among All Citizens: In a democracy, any citizen should be eligible to hold office, reflecting the democratic ideal of equal participation.
    • 2. Rotation in Office: The democratic system emphasizes the rotation of officials, meaning that all citizens take turns ruling and being ruled.
    • 3. Selection by Lot: Offices that do not require specialized knowledge or expertise are often assigned by lot rather than election, to ensure fairness and equal opportunity.
    • 4. Minimal Property Requirements: Offices are generally not restricted by wealth or property qualifications, or if they are, the requirements are kept to a minimum, so that as many citizens as possible can participate.
    • 5. Term Limits: Democratic regimes often limit how long an individual can hold office, with most offices being of short duration to prevent the concentration of power.
    • 6. General Jurisdiction: In democracies, all citizens or a large portion of them participate in making judicial decisions, especially concerning matters of great importance such as audits or decisions about the regime itself.
• B. Role of the Assembly and Council
  • 1. Authority of the Assembly: The assembly plays a crucial role in democratic regimes. It often holds authority over all or most matters, with decisions being made by the collective will of the people.
  • 2. Importance of the Council: The council is another important institution, though its power varies depending on whether the people receive pay. If citizens are paid for participation in governance, more power tends to shift directly to the people rather than to the council. In cases where there is insufficient pay, the council has more authority.
• C. Payment for Public Service
  • A key feature of democratic regimes is the provision of pay for participation in governance. Pay allows citizens, especially the poor, to engage in public duties without being financially disadvantaged.
    • 1. Pay for the Assembly, Courts, and Offices: In an ideal democratic system, pay is provided for all citizens who participate in the assembly, courts, and public offices.
    • 2. Partial Pay: If full pay is not possible, it is at least provided for the most important roles, such as those in authoritative positions or where common meals are shared.

IV. Defining Features of Democracy by Contrast with Oligarchy

• A. Democratic Opposition to Oligarchy
  • Aristotle contrasts democracy with oligarchy, which is defined by the concentration of power among the wealthy, well-born, and educated. In democracies, the opposite values are celebrated:
    • Lack of Birth: Nobility of birth is irrelevant or even disdained in a democracy.
    • Poverty: Poverty is not seen as a disqualifier for holding office; indeed, the poor have significant authority due to their numerical advantage.
    • Vulgarity: In contrast to the refined tastes valued in oligarchies, democracies embrace the ordinary and common.
• B. Elimination of Life Tenure
  • Another key feature of democratic regimes is the rejection of lifetime offices. Democracies do not allow any office to be held for life, and if any offices have remained from previous regimes with life tenure, they are either abolished or transformed so that officials are chosen by lot rather than election.

V. Conclusion: Equality as the Defining Principle of Democracy

• A. Justice and Equality in Democracy
  • Aristotle concludes by reaffirming that the defining principle of democracy is equality, particularly equality in participation. The ideal democratic system ensures that no one class, particularly the poor, has more authority than another, and all citizens share in power equally.
• B. Balance of Power Between Rich and Poor
  • For democracy to function effectively, there must be a balance in which the poor do not dominate the wealthy, nor do the wealthy hold undue authority over the poor. This balance, based on numerical equality, is what creates a sense of both freedom and justice in democratic regimes.

Summary of Major Themes

1. Freedom as the Basis of Democracy: Aristotle emphasizes that freedom is the core principle of democratic governance. This freedom is expressed both through the ability of citizens to rule and be ruled in turn, as well as through the freedom to live as one pleases.
2. Equality of Participation: Democratic justice is founded on numerical equality—the idea that all citizens should have an equal share in governance, regardless of merit or social status. This principle ensures that the majority, often the poor, holds authority.
3. Institutional Features of Democracy: Key institutional features of democracies include the election of officials from among all citizens, rotation of office, selection by lot, and minimal property requirements. These institutions ensure broad participation and prevent any individual or class from holding power for too long.
4. Opposition to Oligarchy: Democracy is characterized by its rejection of the oligarchic values of wealth, birth, and education. Instead, it embraces poverty, vulgarity, and the common citizen, ensuring that no office is held for life and that power is distributed equally.
5. Justice Through Equality: Aristotle concludes that true democracy is defined by a balance of power between the rich and the poor, where neither class dominates, and all citizens have equal authority. This balance creates a regime that is both just and free.

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