Chapter 14
I. Rulers and the Ruled: Differences and Similarities
- A. Investigating the Relationship Between Rulers and the Ruled
- Aristotle begins by addressing the fundamental relationship between the rulers and the ruled in any political community. He asks whether the same individuals should rule throughout their lives or whether there should be rotation in ruling and being ruled.
- The nature of this relationship is critical to determining the proper system of education, as the form of education will depend on whether the rulers and ruled are different or the same individuals at various stages of life.
- B. The Ideal of Divine or Heroic Rule
- Aristotle speculates that if rulers were vastly superior to the ruled, as gods or heroes are to humans, it would make sense for the same individuals to rule permanently. Such rulers would be clearly superior in both body and soul, making their authority obvious and unquestioned.
- However, since such a difference between rulers and ruled is not found among humans, Aristotle rejects this model as impractical.
- C. Sharing in Rule and Being Ruled
- Aristotle argues that, in human communities, it is necessary for all citizens to share in both ruling and being ruled in turn. He asserts that equality among citizens, who are fundamentally similar, is a requirement of justice.
- A regime that ignores this principle of equality is unlikely to last, as it will generate dissatisfaction among the ruled and encourage attempts to overthrow the regime.
- D. The Role of the Legislator
- While it is necessary for all citizens to share in rule, Aristotle notes that rulers should still be different from the ruled in certain respects, particularly in terms of age and experience. The legislator’s task is to determine how citizens can best participate in both ruling and being ruled.
II. The Role of Age in Political Authority
- A. Nature's Distinction Between Younger and Older Citizens
- Aristotle explains that nature provides a distinction between rulers and ruled by the simple fact of age. The younger should be ruled, while the older should rule, as experience and maturity typically come with age.
- Age-based rule is more acceptable to people, as younger individuals expect to rule later in life and do not resent being ruled when they are young.
- B. A Model of Rotation in Rule
- In one sense, Aristotle says that the same individuals both rule and are ruled, but in another sense, they are different individuals depending on the stage of life. This natural rotation ensures that everyone participates in both sides of political life.
- C. Education for Ruling and Being Ruled
- Education must reflect this duality: those who will rule must first have been ruled. Aristotle argues that good rulers must have experience being ruled, which prepares them to govern wisely.
- There are two types of rule:
- Rule for the sake of the ruler (despotic rule).
- Rule for the sake of the ruled (political rule).
- A master’s rule benefits only the master, while political rule benefits the community. Free individuals should only be ruled in the latter sense.
III. The Relationship Between Tasks and Their Ends
- A. The Importance of Ends in Human Actions
- Aristotle points out that some tasks, though they may appear similar, differ significantly based on the end for which they are performed. Actions must be judged not only by their nature but also by the purpose they serve.
- Servile tasks performed by free citizens for a noble purpose are different from the same tasks performed by slaves out of necessity. The end goal justifies the action, making it noble or ignoble.
IV. Virtue and the Education of Citizens
- A. The Virtue of the Good Man and Citizen
- Aristotle reaffirms that the virtue of a good man is the same as that of a good citizen. Since individuals are expected to both rule and be ruled, the legislator must concern himself with how to cultivate virtue in citizens.
- The ultimate goal of political life is to produce good citizens who are capable of living well and ruling justly.
- B. The Two Parts of the Soul
- Aristotle divides the soul into two parts:
- 1. Rational: The part that possesses reason.
- 2. Non-rational: The part that can obey reason but does not have it inherently.
- Virtue is related to both parts: the rational part governs, while the non-rational part obeys reason.
- Aristotle divides the soul into two parts:
- C. The Superiority of the Rational Part
- The rational part of the soul is superior to the non-rational part and should therefore rule. This distinction helps explain how different actions and tasks should be judged based on their relationship to reason.
V. The Division of Life: Occupation and Leisure, War and Peace
- A. The Division of Human Life
- Aristotle explains that life is divided into occupation and leisure as well as war and peace. These divisions represent two key aspects of human life:
- Occupation and war are necessary for survival.
- Leisure and peace are the ultimate goals, representing the higher aspects of life.
- Aristotle explains that life is divided into occupation and leisure as well as war and peace. These divisions represent two key aspects of human life:
- B. Choosing Noble Ends
- Aristotle asserts that all actions and occupations should be directed toward noble ends. War should be pursued only for the sake of peace, and occupation should be for the sake of leisure. These noble ends are the true goals of political life.
VI. Criticism of Spartan Education and Misguided Aims
- A. The Flawed Spartan Focus on War
- Aristotle criticizes the Spartan regime for focusing too heavily on war and domination. He argues that the Spartans and their legislators mistakenly believed that the ultimate goal of political life was military supremacy.
- This focus on military strength overlooks the more important goals of peace and leisure, which are the true ends of a good life and regime.
- B. The Mistake of Training for Domination
- Aristotle dismisses the idea that military training should be directed toward conquering others. The pursuit of domination leads to injustice and misery, as seen in the eventual downfall of Sparta.
- True political training should aim to prevent enslavement by others and promote the well-being of the citizens, not mastery over others.
VII. Proper Aims of War and Political Life
- A. The Correct Aim of War
- Aristotle concludes that training for war should have three main purposes:
- 1. Defense: To prevent enslavement by others.
- 2. Leadership for the Common Good: To seek leadership for the purpose of benefiting the ruled, not to dominate for personal gain.
- 3. Mastery Over Slaves: To rule over those who are naturally fit for slavery, as a necessary evil.
- Aristotle concludes that training for war should have three main purposes:
- B. The Importance of Leisure and Peace
- The ultimate goal of political life should be peace and leisure, not war. Most cities that focus on warfare lose their vitality when they achieve peace because they have not been trained to enjoy and benefit from a peaceful life.
- Aristotle argues that a good legislator must focus on educating citizens not only in war but also in how to live leisurely and peacefully, which requires more discipline than waging war.
Summary of Major Themes
- Ruling and Being Ruled: Aristotle stresses the importance of shared governance, where citizens alternate between ruling and being ruled. This promotes equality and ensures the longevity of the regime.
- Education and Virtue: Good rulers must first have been ruled. The legislator must provide education that prepares citizens to be virtuous in both roles, cultivating the virtue of the good man and the good citizen.
- Noble Ends in Action: Actions must be judged by their ends. Even seemingly menial tasks can be noble if they serve a noble purpose.
- Division of Life: Aristotle divides life into war and peace, occupation and leisure. He emphasizes that peace and leisure are the ultimate goals of political life, and all actions should be directed toward these noble ends.
- Critique of Spartan Militarism: Aristotle criticizes the Spartans for focusing excessively on military training and domination. He argues that political life should aim for peace and the common good, not conquest.
- The Right Use of War: War should be pursued only for defense, for promoting the well-being of citizens, and for ruling those fit for slavery, but not for domination over others.
In conclusion, Aristotle’s vision for the ideal political community emphasizes the balance between ruling and being ruled, the pursuit of noble ends, and the importance of leisure and peace as the true goals of human life. The legislator’s role is to cultivate these virtues through education and reason, ensuring the well-being of the city and its citizens.
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