BOOK 8 Contents: That Education is Necessary and in Common

BOOK VIII

Education

Chapter 1 That Education Is Necessary and in Common

Chapter 2 The Content and Manner of Education

Chapter 3 Education for Noble Leisure

Chapter 4 Gymnastics

Chapter 5 Music

Chapter 6 Music the Young Should Be Taught

Chapter 7 Regards Modes and Rhythms  

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BOOK 7 Chapter 17 The Importance of Early Childhood Sustenance and Physical Training

Chapter 17

I. The Importance of Early Childhood Sustenance and Physical Training

• The Role of Proper Sustenance in Physical Development (7.17.1):
  • Aristotle emphasizes that the type of sustenance given to newborns has a significant impact on their physical strength and health. He suggests that the best sustenance is one rich in milk, as evidenced by observations of animal behavior and military cultures.
  • Avoidance of Wine: Aristotle warns against giving children wine, as it can lead to disease and harm their developing bodies.
• Physical Movements for Infants (7.17.2):
  • Physical movement is crucial for infants, even at a young age. Aristotle advocates for engaging children in movements suitable for their age to prevent the distortion of their limbs, which can occur due to the softness of their bodies.
  • Use of Instruments to Support Physical Growth: Certain nations use instruments to help straighten children’s bodies and prevent deformities.
• Training in Cold Resistance (7.17.3):
  • Aristotle highlights the importance of acclimating children to cold temperatures, as this strengthens their health and prepares them for military activities.
  • Cultural Practices of Cold Exposure: Examples from barbarian cultures, such as the Celts, demonstrate the practice of plunging newborns into cold water or dressing them lightly to build resilience.

II. Early Childhood Development from Birth to Age Five

• Limited Learning and Exertion in Early Childhood (7.17.4):
  • Up until the age of five, children should not be subjected to intense learning or physical exertion, as this could impede their growth. Instead, their physical activity should focus on playful movements that prevent bodily idleness.
• Play as Preparation for Future Learning (7.17.5):
  • Play is essential for this age group, but it should not be illiberal or overly lax. Play should serve as a foundation for the skills and activities the children will later pursue in adulthood.
  • Selection of Stories and Tales: The stories and tales children hear should be carefully curated to ensure they align with the virtues they will later cultivate. This responsibility falls to officials, known as “managers of children.”

III. The Benefits of Physical Exertion and Early Play

• The Role of Screaming and Crying in Growth (7.17.6):
  • Aristotle argues against prohibiting children from screaming or crying, as these activities contribute to physical growth. He likens this to an exercise in holding breath, which strengthens the body, a process akin to physical exertion.
• Supervision of Play and Interaction with Slaves (7.17.7):
  • Children's play should be carefully monitored, especially to limit their interaction with slaves. Aristotle stresses that children should not spend much time with slaves, as they may acquire "illiberality" from what they see and hear, which would negatively affect their development.

IV. The Role of Speech, Morality, and Exposure to Art

• The Banishment of Foul Speech from the City (7.17.8):
  • Aristotle stresses the importance of eliminating foul speech from the city, particularly in the presence of the young. He believes that speaking of immoral things brings people closer to committing immoral acts, and this is especially harmful to children.
  • Punishment for Foul Speech (7.17.9):
  • Children or adults who engage in foul speech should be punished appropriately. Young offenders who have not yet reached the age of reclining at the table should be punished with dishonor and beatings, while older individuals should face penalties for acting slavishly.
• Banning Immoral Art and Stories (7.17.10):
  • Along with speech, Aristotle advocates for banning unseemly paintings and stories from the public sphere, except in certain religious contexts. He stresses that officials should ensure no artworks or tales promoting immorality are displayed in public.

V. Exposure to Theater and the Development of Morality

• Banning Children from Lampoons and Comedy (7.17.11):
  • Children should not be exposed to certain forms of entertainment, such as lampoons or comedy, until they are mature enough to understand and withstand the potential negative influence. Only after they reach the age of reclining at the table and drinking should they be permitted to participate in such forms of entertainment.
• The Harm of Early Exposure to Vice in Performances (7.17.12):
  • Aristotle references the famous actor Theodorus, who claimed that first impressions have a lasting impact on audiences. Likewise, Aristotle argues that exposing children to immoral acts or performances at a young age can have a corrupting effect on their development.
• Prioritizing Virtuous First Encounters (7.17.13):
  • Children are naturally inclined to be fond of what they first encounter, and for this reason, Aristotle emphasizes that their early exposure should be to virtuous people and activities, as this will shape their long-term character.
• Learning by Observation (7.17.14):
  • After the age of five, children should begin observing the types of learning and activities they will eventually be required to participate in. This observational period prepares them for the formal education that will follow.

VI. The Stages of Education: From Childhood to Adulthood

• Distinguishing Educational Stages by Age (7.17.15):
  • Aristotle outlines two major educational stages: the period from ages seven to puberty and the period from puberty to age twenty-one. While he acknowledges the validity of dividing ages into seven-year increments, he insists that education should be aligned with nature and the development of the child.
  • Education Supplementing Nature: Aristotle emphasizes that education and training should address what is lacking in nature. Where natural development is insufficient, education steps in to cultivate necessary virtues and skills.
• Debating the Public vs. Private Supervision of Education (7.17.16):
  • Aristotle raises the question of whether children’s education should be publicly or privately supervised. He notes that in many cities, education is left to private individuals, but he hints at the need for further discussion on whether this is advantageous.
• The Quality of Supervision in Education: The next consideration is the quality of supervision in education. Aristotle stresses the importance of establishing a structured system of supervision to ensure that children are educated according to the highest moral and intellectual standards.

Conclusion

In Politics 7, Chapter 17, Aristotle presents a detailed account of the principles guiding the early upbringing and education of children. He begins by discussing the physical care of children, including proper sustenance, exposure to physical exercise, and acclimatization to cold, all of which are critical for fostering a healthy body capable of military service. Aristotle also delves into the importance of carefully curated play, stories, and early education that are aligned with virtue and designed to prepare children for their future roles as citizens.

Aristotle is particularly concerned with the moral influence of speech, art, and theater on young minds. He argues that children must be protected from exposure to immoral stories, foul speech, and inappropriate performances until they are mature enough to handle them. His recommendations highlight the critical role of early moral education and the need to foster a love for virtuous activities through first impressions.

Finally, Aristotle underscores the importance of education in supplementing nature, dividing the educational process into stages that align with the child’s development. He raises essential questions about the public versus private supervision of education and stresses the need for structured oversight to ensure children are reared according to the highest moral and intellectual standards.

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BOOK 7 Chapter 16 Importance of the Legislator in Shaping Procreation and Family Life

Chapter 16

I. Importance of the Legislator in Shaping Procreation and Family Life

• The Role of the Legislator in Promoting the Best Possible Bodies (7.16.1):
  • Aristotle begins by emphasizing the critical role of the legislator in ensuring that the physical condition of the citizens is the best it can be. This starts with regulating the union between men and women to create the healthiest offspring.
  • Regulation of Marriage: The legislator should not only be concerned with the quality of the people entering into marriage but also when these unions occur, in terms of both physical maturity and compatibility of age.
  • Preventing Incompatibility: Aristotle advises that men and women should marry at compatible ages to avoid issues in procreation. If one partner is no longer capable of reproduction while the other is, it could lead to conflicts and discord in the marriage.

II. Timing and Age for Procreation

• Ensuring Age Compatibility (7.16.2-3):
  • The timing of procreation should consider both the partners’ capacities and the ages of their offspring. Aristotle suggests that if fathers are too old compared to their children, they may not live long enough to enjoy their gratitude or contribute to their upbringing.
  • Closeness in Age Between Parents and Children: Parents who are too close in age to their children may not command the same respect, as their roles may become blurred. This could lead to accusations and conflicts in the household due to perceived equality between parents and children.
• Harmonizing the Generational Gap: Aristotle advocates for an ideal timing of births to ensure that fathers are old enough to impart wisdom but still young enough to benefit from their children’s respect and support.

III. Managing Procreation and the Union of Men and Women

• Defining Proper Age for Men and Women in Procreation (7.16.5):
  • Aristotle recommends an upper age limit for procreation, with men generally ceasing to reproduce by seventy and women by fifty. This ensures that their children are raised during the prime years of their parents’ lives.
  • Mating of Young Persons: He criticizes the practice of marrying off young men and women, pointing out that the offspring of young unions are often weaker, smaller in stature, or predominantly female. He notes that some cities with such practices produce inferior citizens.
• Health Risks for Young Mothers (7.16.7):
  • Young women, Aristotle explains, face more physical hardships in childbirth, including a higher mortality rate. He alludes to an ancient oracle advising the Troezenians to avoid marrying off young women to prevent high infant mortality.
  • Benefits of Marrying Older: Marrying older women is not only healthier for childbirth but also encourages moderation, as women who engage in intercourse at a younger age are perceived to be more licentious.

IV. Ideal Age for Men and Women to Marry

• Recommendations for Age at Marriage (7.16.9):
  • Aristotle proposes that the ideal age for women to marry is around eighteen and for men to marry at thirty-seven or a little earlier. This age difference ensures that both parties are physically mature and that their bodies are in peak condition for procreation.
  • Benefits of the Age Gap: By marrying at these ages, the union will naturally conclude at an appropriate time, avoiding the health risks and challenges associated with late or early procreation.
• Intergenerational Benefits of Proper Timing: The offspring produced from such unions will benefit from being born while their parents are still relatively young and healthy, while the fathers, nearing seventy, will have lived long enough to pass on their wisdom and guidance.

V. Seasonal Considerations for Procreation

• Winter as the Ideal Time for Cohabitation (7.16.10):
  • Aristotle praises the common practice of beginning cohabitation in winter, as this season is conducive to healthy procreation.
  • Consulting Doctors and Natural Science Experts: He advises married couples to take advice from doctors regarding the physical conditions best suited for procreation and from natural scientists about environmental factors such as winds. For instance, northerly winds are considered healthier than southerly ones for procreation.

VI. Physical and Bodily Considerations for Procreation

• Physical Constitution and Fitness for Procreation (7.16.12):
  • Aristotle delves into the importance of the physical disposition of both men and women in ensuring healthy offspring. He emphasizes that neither the overly athletic physique of athletes nor a sedentary and weak body is ideal for procreation.
  • Moderation in Physical Training: The best physical condition for citizens, Aristotle argues, is one that is developed through moderate exertion, not extreme training like athletes. This ensures both health and readiness for the varied activities expected of citizens.
• Exercise for Pregnant Women (7.16.14):
  • Pregnant women, too, should maintain a regimen of moderate exercise. Aristotle suggests that they should avoid idleness and continue to nourish their bodies well to support the growth of their children.
  • Civic Encouragement for Exercise: Aristotle proposes that pregnant women be encouraged to participate in daily walks to worship gods associated with childbirth. This ensures their physical health and also aligns with civic religious practices.

VII. Management of Offspring Post-Birth

• Laws Regarding Deformed Offspring (7.16.15):
  • Aristotle proposes a law that prohibits the rearing of deformed children. He argues that deformed children should not be raised, as their physical or mental deficiencies would prevent them from contributing effectively to society.
  • Procreation Limits: There should be limits on the number of children a family can produce. If children are conceived beyond this limit, Aristotle advocates for abortion, provided it occurs before the fetus has developed the senses of perception and life, which he regards as the threshold for ethical considerations.

VIII. Limiting the Time for Publicly Sanctioned Procreation

• The Appropriate Age for Procreation (7.16.16):
  • Aristotle outlines the need to establish a defined time period for citizens to engage in procreation for public purposes. He believes that after a certain age, individuals should no longer be expected to contribute to the city's population.
  • Old Age and Procreation: Children born to older parents tend to be weak in both body and mind. Thus, Aristotle advises that after the age of fifty, men and women should no longer engage in procreation for public purposes.
• Release from Procreation Duties (7.16.17):
  • Aristotle proposes that individuals be released from the obligation to procreate after they have passed their prime, which he defines as occurring around the fiftieth year of life. After this, individuals may engage in relations for health reasons or personal reasons, but not for public procreation.

IX. Ethical and Social Norms Regarding Marriage and Adultery

• Regulating Marital Fidelity (7.16.18):
  • Aristotle stresses that relations outside of marriage, especially during the period designated for procreation, are socially unacceptable and should be punished. He insists that infidelity undermines the social and moral fabric of the city, particularly when it occurs during the time set aside for producing offspring for the public good.
  • Punishment for Infidelity: Those caught engaging in extramarital relations during the period of procreation should face a loss of honor, appropriate to their misconduct, to discourage such behavior and maintain social order.

Conclusion

In Politics 7, Chapter 16, Aristotle delves into the practical aspects of regulating marriage and procreation to ensure the health, well-being, and continuity of the state. He advocates for careful legislation around the timing of marriage, the age of the partners, and the quality of offspring, all aimed at creating the healthiest and most capable citizens. By emphasizing moderation in physical activity, particularly for pregnant women, and promoting ethical standards in marriage, Aristotle lays the foundation for a well-ordered and prosperous society. His detailed analysis of procreation reflects his broader concern for balancing the needs of the individual with those of the polis in pursuit of the common good.

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BOOK 7 Chapter 15 I. The Relationship Between the Best Man and the Best Regime

Chapter 15

I. The Relationship Between the Best Man and the Best Regime

• Common End for the Best Individual and the Best Regime (7.15.1):
  • Aristotle begins by stating that both human beings and political regimes share the same ultimate purpose: the achievement of the good life. This applies both privately (to individuals) and publicly (to the city-state or polis).
  • Virtue as the Core: The same principles that define the best man—virtue and moral excellence—are necessary for the best political regime.
  • Leisure and Occupation: Aristotle emphasizes the importance of virtues directed towards leisure, as leisure is the end of all occupation. He argues that just as peace is the end of war, leisure is the end of work or occupation.
  • Purpose of Virtue: The ultimate goal of human life, according to Aristotle, involves leisure, a condition where humans are free from basic survival tasks and can pursue higher intellectual and moral activities.

II. The Virtues Necessary for Leisure and Occupation

• Virtues Directed Towards Both Leisure and Occupation (7.15.2):
  • Aristotle makes a distinction between virtues needed for leisure and those required for active engagement or occupation.
  • Necessity of Certain Virtues: For people to be able to enjoy leisure, certain virtues—such as courage, endurance, and moderation—must be cultivated to ensure that citizens can protect their way of life from external threats and internal excesses.
  • Moderation and Courage: He emphasizes the necessity of moderation, courage, and endurance in individuals. These virtues are critical for citizens to handle both occupation and the leisure that comes afterward.
  • Freedom and Virtue: Drawing on the proverb “there is no leisure for slaves,” Aristotle links the capacity for leisure to freedom, suggesting that only those capable of courage and endurance are truly free. Without these virtues, citizens are susceptible to becoming slaves to those who would conquer them.

III. The Role of Virtue in Leisure and Peace

• Courage for War, Philosophy for Leisure (7.15.3):
  • While virtues like courage and endurance are required for occupations and defense, philosophy and intellectual engagement are needed for leisure.
  • Philosophy and Virtue in Peace: Aristotle highlights the importance of moderation and justice, which are essential both in war and in times of peace. In particular, philosophy is the virtue that occupies individuals in times of leisure, allowing them to reflect on deeper truths and wisdom.
  • Justice and Moderation: In times of peace, when people are free from external pressures, they are more likely to become arrogant. Thus, they need even more justice and moderation to handle the abundance of good fortune that may come their way during peaceful periods.
• Leisure as a Time for Virtue: Aristotle stresses that in times of peace and abundance, the virtues of justice, moderation, and especially philosophy, are paramount to ensure that individuals use their leisure properly.

IV. The Danger of Misusing Leisure

• Proper Use of Good Things (7.15.4):
  • Aristotle elaborates that those who have the most blessings and good fortune are the ones most in need of virtues like moderation and justice. He emphasizes that even in the "islands of the blessed," where individuals have everything, it is essential to cultivate these virtues to prevent arrogance and abuse of leisure.
  • Leisure as a Double-Edged Sword: When individuals possess an abundance of good things but lack the virtues necessary to manage them, they become arrogant and unjust. Therefore, it is crucial for the best individuals and regimes to use their leisure properly, guided by philosophical contemplation and moderation.

V. Critique of Spartan Virtue Training

• The Limitation of Spartan Training (7.15.5):
  • Aristotle critiques the Spartan focus on training virtues only for war and occupation. The Spartans prioritize virtues useful for acquiring external goods, but Aristotle argues that this is insufficient for a truly happy and excellent city.
  • Virtue Beyond Utility: Spartans differ from others not because they have a different understanding of what constitutes the best goods, but because they believe these goods are attained through virtues related only to war and conflict.
  • Virtue for Leisure: Aristotle asserts that the highest form of virtue is the one that governs the use of goods during leisure, which the Spartans neglect. Virtues for leisure, particularly those of intellectual and philosophical nature, are what lead to a truly excellent and happy life.
  • Virtue in Peacetime: Aristotle advocates for a form of virtue that governs the use of material and external goods in times of peace and leisure, as this is where true excellence lies.

VI. Nature, Habit, and Reason in Education

• Educational Foundations (7.15.7):
  • Aristotle refers to a distinction he made earlier between nature, habit, and reason, stressing that all three are essential in shaping virtuous citizens.
  • The Role of Reason and Habit: He highlights that both reason and habit should be harmonized in the education of citizens, as they reinforce one another. A balance between intellectual development (reason) and practical discipline (habit) is crucial for the formation of virtuous individuals.
  • Educating Towards Reason: Aristotle concludes that the ultimate goal of education should be the cultivation of reason and intellect, which are the end and purpose of human nature. This aligns with his broader argument that the highest virtues—those associated with leisure—are intellectual virtues like philosophy.

VII. The Development of Rational and Irrational Parts of the Soul

• Development of Soul and Body (7.15.9):
  • Aristotle distinguishes between the irrational and rational parts of the soul. He argues that the irrational part, which includes desires and emotions, develops first in humans, and this must be carefully guided and educated in children.
  • Primacy of the Irrational: In the developmental process, the irrational elements of the soul (such as spiritedness and will) are present from birth, while the rational parts (intellect and reasoning) develop later.
• Educational Sequence: Education must begin with the irrational parts of the soul—such as controlling desires and teaching proper habits—before moving on to the development of reason and intellect. Just as the body is prior to the soul in birth, so too are the irrational aspects prior to the rational ones.

VIII. The Role of the Body and Soul in Education

• Hierarchy of Development (7.15.10):
  • Aristotle asserts that the body must be educated first, for the body’s health and discipline are necessary for the proper development of the soul.
  • Role of Appetite and Intellect: The development of appetite (or desire) is for the sake of the intellect, and the care of the body is ultimately for the benefit of the soul.
  • Holistic Approach to Education: Aristotle argues for a holistic educational approach that encompasses the body, the irrational desires, and the rational intellect. Proper education nurtures all these components to achieve the complete development of virtuous citizens.

Conclusion

Aristotle’s Politics 7, Chapter 15, provides a detailed analysis of the role of virtue in the best regime and the best individual life. It emphasizes the need for virtues that govern both occupation and leisure, with a particular focus on intellectual virtues like philosophy in times of peace. Aristotle critiques the Spartan approach to virtue training, which focuses solely on war and acquisition, and advocates for a more comprehensive cultivation of virtue that prepares individuals to use their leisure and good fortune wisely. Finally, Aristotle stresses the importance of education in harmonizing nature, habit, and reason, leading to the full development of the human soul and intellect.

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BOOK 7 Chapter 14: I. Rulers and the Ruled: Difference and Similarities

Chapter 14

I. Rulers and the Ruled: Differences and Similarities

• A. Investigating the Relationship Between Rulers and the Ruled
  • Aristotle begins by addressing the fundamental relationship between the rulers and the ruled in any political community. He asks whether the same individuals should rule throughout their lives or whether there should be rotation in ruling and being ruled.
  • The nature of this relationship is critical to determining the proper system of education, as the form of education will depend on whether the rulers and ruled are different or the same individuals at various stages of life.
• B. The Ideal of Divine or Heroic Rule
  • Aristotle speculates that if rulers were vastly superior to the ruled, as gods or heroes are to humans, it would make sense for the same individuals to rule permanently. Such rulers would be clearly superior in both body and soul, making their authority obvious and unquestioned.
  • However, since such a difference between rulers and ruled is not found among humans, Aristotle rejects this model as impractical.
• C. Sharing in Rule and Being Ruled
  • Aristotle argues that, in human communities, it is necessary for all citizens to share in both ruling and being ruled in turn. He asserts that equality among citizens, who are fundamentally similar, is a requirement of justice.
  • A regime that ignores this principle of equality is unlikely to last, as it will generate dissatisfaction among the ruled and encourage attempts to overthrow the regime.
• D. The Role of the Legislator
  • While it is necessary for all citizens to share in rule, Aristotle notes that rulers should still be different from the ruled in certain respects, particularly in terms of age and experience. The legislator’s task is to determine how citizens can best participate in both ruling and being ruled.

II. The Role of Age in Political Authority

• A. Nature's Distinction Between Younger and Older Citizens
  • Aristotle explains that nature provides a distinction between rulers and ruled by the simple fact of age. The younger should be ruled, while the older should rule, as experience and maturity typically come with age.
  • Age-based rule is more acceptable to people, as younger individuals expect to rule later in life and do not resent being ruled when they are young.
• B. A Model of Rotation in Rule
  • In one sense, Aristotle says that the same individuals both rule and are ruled, but in another sense, they are different individuals depending on the stage of life. This natural rotation ensures that everyone participates in both sides of political life.
• C. Education for Ruling and Being Ruled
  • Education must reflect this duality: those who will rule must first have been ruled. Aristotle argues that good rulers must have experience being ruled, which prepares them to govern wisely.
  • There are two types of rule:
    • Rule for the sake of the ruler (despotic rule).
    • Rule for the sake of the ruled (political rule).
    • A master’s rule benefits only the master, while political rule benefits the community. Free individuals should only be ruled in the latter sense.

III. The Relationship Between Tasks and Their Ends

• A. The Importance of Ends in Human Actions
  • Aristotle points out that some tasks, though they may appear similar, differ significantly based on the end for which they are performed. Actions must be judged not only by their nature but also by the purpose they serve.
  • Servile tasks performed by free citizens for a noble purpose are different from the same tasks performed by slaves out of necessity. The end goal justifies the action, making it noble or ignoble.

IV. Virtue and the Education of Citizens

• A. The Virtue of the Good Man and Citizen
  • Aristotle reaffirms that the virtue of a good man is the same as that of a good citizen. Since individuals are expected to both rule and be ruled, the legislator must concern himself with how to cultivate virtue in citizens.
  • The ultimate goal of political life is to produce good citizens who are capable of living well and ruling justly.
• B. The Two Parts of the Soul
  • Aristotle divides the soul into two parts:
    • 1. Rational: The part that possesses reason.
    • 2. Non-rational: The part that can obey reason but does not have it inherently.
  • Virtue is related to both parts: the rational part governs, while the non-rational part obeys reason.
• C. The Superiority of the Rational Part
  • The rational part of the soul is superior to the non-rational part and should therefore rule. This distinction helps explain how different actions and tasks should be judged based on their relationship to reason.

V. The Division of Life: Occupation and Leisure, War and Peace

• A. The Division of Human Life
  • Aristotle explains that life is divided into occupation and leisure as well as war and peace. These divisions represent two key aspects of human life:
    • Occupation and war are necessary for survival.
    • Leisure and peace are the ultimate goals, representing the higher aspects of life.
• B. Choosing Noble Ends
  • Aristotle asserts that all actions and occupations should be directed toward noble ends. War should be pursued only for the sake of peace, and occupation should be for the sake of leisure. These noble ends are the true goals of political life.

VI. Criticism of Spartan Education and Misguided Aims

• A. The Flawed Spartan Focus on War
  • Aristotle criticizes the Spartan regime for focusing too heavily on war and domination. He argues that the Spartans and their legislators mistakenly believed that the ultimate goal of political life was military supremacy.
  • This focus on military strength overlooks the more important goals of peace and leisure, which are the true ends of a good life and regime.
• B. The Mistake of Training for Domination
  • Aristotle dismisses the idea that military training should be directed toward conquering others. The pursuit of domination leads to injustice and misery, as seen in the eventual downfall of Sparta.
  • True political training should aim to prevent enslavement by others and promote the well-being of the citizens, not mastery over others.

VII. Proper Aims of War and Political Life

• A. The Correct Aim of War
  • Aristotle concludes that training for war should have three main purposes:
    • 1. Defense: To prevent enslavement by others.
    • 2. Leadership for the Common Good: To seek leadership for the purpose of benefiting the ruled, not to dominate for personal gain.
    • 3. Mastery Over Slaves: To rule over those who are naturally fit for slavery, as a necessary evil.
• B. The Importance of Leisure and Peace
  • The ultimate goal of political life should be peace and leisure, not war. Most cities that focus on warfare lose their vitality when they achieve peace because they have not been trained to enjoy and benefit from a peaceful life.
  • Aristotle argues that a good legislator must focus on educating citizens not only in war but also in how to live leisurely and peacefully, which requires more discipline than waging war.

Summary of Major Themes

1. Ruling and Being Ruled: Aristotle stresses the importance of shared governance, where citizens alternate between ruling and being ruled. This promotes equality and ensures the longevity of the regime.
2. Education and Virtue: Good rulers must first have been ruled. The legislator must provide education that prepares citizens to be virtuous in both roles, cultivating the virtue of the good man and the good citizen.
3. Noble Ends in Action: Actions must be judged by their ends. Even seemingly menial tasks can be noble if they serve a noble purpose.
4. Division of Life: Aristotle divides life into war and peace, occupation and leisure. He emphasizes that peace and leisure are the ultimate goals of political life, and all actions should be directed toward these noble ends.
5. Critique of Spartan Militarism: Aristotle criticizes the Spartans for focusing excessively on military training and domination. He argues that political life should aim for peace and the common good, not conquest.
6. The Right Use of War: War should be pursued only for defense, for promoting the well-being of citizens, and for ruling those fit for slavery, but not for domination over others.

In conclusion, Aristotle’s vision for the ideal political community emphasizes the balance between ruling and being ruled, the pursuit of noble ends, and the importance of leisure and peace as the true goals of human life. The legislator’s role is to cultivate these virtues through education and reason, ensuring the well-being of the city and its citizens.

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BOOK 7 Chapter 13 I. Introduction: The Goal of the Best Regime

Chapter 13

I. Introduction: The Goal of the Best Regime

• A. The Constitution of the Ideal City
  • Aristotle begins by addressing the question of how to constitute a city that is blessed and finely governed. The chapter aims to define the types of people and conditions necessary to form the best regime.
  • The focus of the discussion is on how the best possible city can be constructed in a way that ensures it is happy and well-governed, emphasizing the qualities of its citizens and leadership.
• B. The Two Key Elements of Living Well
  • Aristotle identifies two main components that are essential for living well:
    • 1. Correct Aim: First, there must be a correct understanding of the aim or end of actions. This means that individuals must have a clear sense of what they are striving for—happiness and virtue.
    • 2. Correct Actions: Second, the actions taken must effectively lead to that end. In other words, people must be able to find the means to achieve their goal. Even if the aim is right, the actions toward it must also be correct for success.
• C. Failures in Aims and Actions
  • Aristotle explains that failure can occur in different ways:
    • 1. Misjudging the End: Sometimes individuals set the wrong end and, even if they pursue it effectively, they fail because the goal itself is flawed.
    • 2. Misjudging the Actions: Other times, individuals may have the correct goal but fail because they pursue it through incorrect actions.
    • 3. Missing Both: The worst-case scenario is when individuals miss both the end and the actions, leading to complete failure.
• D. Analogy with Medicine
  • Aristotle uses the analogy of medicine to illustrate the point. Just as a doctor must know both the correct end goal (health) and the correct treatments to achieve that end, the legislator must know both the ultimate aim of the city (happiness) and the actions necessary to achieve it.

II. The Nature of Happiness and the Best Regime

• A. The Universal Pursuit of Happiness
  • Aristotle observes that everyone strives for happiness and living well, but some are better equipped to achieve these things due to their fortune or nature. While happiness is theoretically open to everyone, some people are prevented from achieving it because of external factors.
• B. Correct vs. Incorrect Pursuit of Happiness
  • Some people, despite being able to achieve happiness, seek it in the wrong way. Aristotle is concerned with guiding individuals and cities toward the correct path to happiness. This correct path is aligned with the best regime, which must help the citizens live the best life possible.
• C. The Definition of Happiness
  • Aristotle defines happiness as the actualization and complete practice of virtue. It is not based on external presuppositions but is a self-sufficient and unqualified good.
    • Necessary vs. Unqualified Goods: Some things are good only because they are necessary, like punishments or justice in retribution. These are good in a conditional or necessary sense but not inherently desirable. On the other hand, actions directed toward honor and well-being are unqualifiedly noble because they contribute to the greater good without being tied to necessary evils.
    • Example of Virtue: Aristotle explains that virtuous individuals can handle misfortunes like poverty and disease nobly, but true blessedness lies in their opposites—good fortune and health.
• D. Role of the Legislator
  • The legislator must focus on providing the conditions for the city and its citizens to achieve happiness through the practice of virtue. Some external goods, like fortune, are beyond control, but virtue is a matter of choice and deliberate action. A well-constructed regime can equip citizens to be virtuous.

III. The Role of Citizens in the Best Regime

• A. The Role of Excellence in Citizens
  • A city is excellent if its citizens are excellent. In the ideal regime, all citizens must actively participate in the political process, and their excellence contributes to the overall success of the city. The virtue of the citizens leads to the happiness of the city.
• B. The Importance of Individual Excellence
  • While it is possible for a city to function well with only some citizens being excellent, it is more desirable for each individual citizen to be excellent. The excellence of the whole comes from the excellence of each part (each citizen), so the best regime is one where all citizens are cultivated to be virtuous.
• C. How Men Become Excellent
  • Aristotle identifies three factors that contribute to making a man excellent:
    • 1. Nature: A person must be naturally inclined to develop as a human being and possess the right qualities of body and soul.
    • 2. Habit: Habituation plays a critical role in shaping virtue. Individuals need to develop the right habits to foster good character.
    • 3. Reason: Finally, reason distinguishes humans from other animals. Human beings must be guided by rational thought to make good decisions and act virtuously.
• D. The Role of Nature, Habit, and Reason
  • Although nature sets the foundation, it is habits and reason that ultimately determine whether an individual develops into a good and virtuous person. Nature alone is insufficient because habits can alter natural inclinations for better or worse.
  • Unlike animals, humans have the ability to override their natural tendencies and habits through reason, choosing a better course of action if they are persuaded that it is superior.

IV. The Role of Education in the Best Regime

• A. The Need for Education
  • Aristotle concludes that, after nature, the development of good citizens depends on education. Education is essential for both the formation of habits and the development of reason.
  • Learning by Habituation and Instruction: People learn some things through habituation (repeated actions that form character) and others through listening (education and reasoning). Both are necessary for creating good citizens.

Summary of Major Themes

1. The Best Regime and Happiness: Aristotle connects the best regime with the achievement of happiness. A city is best governed when it enables its citizens to live well, which means practicing virtue and attaining happiness.
2. Dual Requirements for Living Well: Aristotle stresses the importance of both correctly identifying the goal (happiness) and acting in the right way to achieve it. Cities must be structured in a way that promotes both virtuous aims and actions.
3. Excellence of Citizens: The excellence of a city depends on the excellence of its citizens. In the best regime, every citizen is virtuous, which in turn leads to the happiness of the city. The more excellent individuals there are, the better the regime.
4. Role of Nature, Habit, and Reason: Aristotle argues that human nature, habits, and reason are the three critical factors in developing virtue. Education and the legislator play key roles in cultivating these qualities in citizens.
5. Education and Habituation: Education is crucial in shaping citizens who can live virtuous lives. It ensures that citizens develop the right habits and the ability to use reason to guide their actions. Without education, even naturally gifted individuals may fail to reach their potential.

In conclusion, Aristotle’s vision for the best regime is one that enables happiness through the virtue of its citizens. By fostering individual excellence through a combination of nature, habit, and reason, and by providing the right education, the regime creates a society where all citizens can live well.

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BOOK 7 Chapter 12 I. Organization of Common Messes and Guardhouses

Chapter 12

I. Organization of Common Messes and Guardhouses

• A. Common Messes in the City’s Defense System
  • Aristotle begins by stating that the citizens should be distributed into common messes (public meals or communal dining). These common messes play a crucial role in both the military and civic organization of the city.
  • He suggests that the city’s walls should be equipped with guardhouses and towers at regular intervals for defense. These guardhouses can serve a dual function—not only acting as military defense points but also housing some of the common messes. This proposal ensures that the defense and communal aspects of city life are integrated, strengthening the unity of the citizen-soldiers and their involvement in the city’s protection.
• B. Proper Location of Sacred Buildings and Authoritative Boards
  • The buildings associated with divine worship and the common messes for the city’s most authoritative officials should be located together in a proper place. This central location ensures that these important institutions are symbolically and practically integrated into the city’s life.
  • Some temples may need to be separate from this central location due to legal or prophetic requirements, such as those of the Delphic oracle. This reflects the importance of following religious prescriptions when planning the layout of the city.

II. The Ideal Civic Layout and Division of Spaces

• A. Elevated Location for Sacred and Administrative Buildings
  • The sacred and administrative buildings should occupy an elevated position in the city, allowing their virtue and importance to be clearly visible to all citizens. This also gives these institutions a fortified advantage, making them more secure in case of an attack.
  • By placing these structures in a prominent position, Aristotle emphasizes the connection between the city’s moral values (as represented by the temples) and its governance (as represented by the official boards).
• B. The “Free” Market for Citizens
  • Below the elevated position of the sacred and official buildings, Aristotle proposes the establishment of a special market similar to the one in Thessaly, which is called the “free” market. This market is reserved for leisure activities and citizen gatherings. It is not a place for trade or commercial activities.
  • Workers, farmers, and merchants are not allowed to enter the market unless summoned by officials. This distinction reflects Aristotle’s belief in the separation of necessary activities (like commerce) from leisure and civic duties, which should be reserved for free citizens.
  • Aristotle also suggests that this market could serve as a place for physical exercise, particularly for older citizens.
• C. The Role of Officials in Public Life
  • Aristotle proposes that the officials of the city should spend time with younger men in these communal spaces, while older men interact with the officials. This arrangement fosters a sense of civic duty, as the presence of officials encourages citizens to develop a sense of shame and respect for authority. The interactions between citizens and officials help promote a moral order that reinforces the values of a free society.

III. Market for Necessary Goods and Military Supplies

• A. Separation of Necessary Markets from Leisure Markets
  • Aristotle distinguishes between the “free” market, which is meant for leisure and civic gatherings, and a separate market designated for necessary goods. This second market is intended for the exchange of goods needed for daily life, such as food and supplies, and for military equipment.
  • The market for necessary goods should be located in a convenient place for goods arriving from both the sea and the countryside. This ensures the smooth flow of essential resources into the city.

IV. Organization of Common Messes for Different Groups

• A. Common Messes for Priests and Officials
  • The multitude of citizens is divided into several key groups, such as priests, officials, and soldiers. Aristotle notes that just as the officials have their common messes near sacred buildings, there should also be common messes for priests close to temples. This proximity allows priests to perform their duties more efficiently and maintain a close relationship with their religious duties.
• B. Location of Administrative Officials
  • Administrative officials who oversee legal matters, such as contracts, indictments, and summonses, should be stationed near the market or other accessible meeting places. This ensures that they can effectively manage the daily affairs of the city and be available to the citizens for legal disputes and market regulation.
  • Aristotle further distinguishes between two kinds of markets:
    • The upper market is associated with leisure and more elevated civic activities.
    • The necessary market is where daily commercial activities take place.

V. Extending the Civic Layout to the Countryside

• A. Guardhouses and Temples in the Countryside
  • The organization of the countryside should mirror the organization of the city, with similar arrangements for guardhouses and common messes for officials. These officials are responsible for overseeing the rural areas, such as the “foresters” or “field managers”.
  • Just as the city has temples, the countryside should have temples dedicated to both gods and heroes, ensuring that the religious life of the city is extended into rural areas. This provides a spiritual and civic framework for the entire territory.

VI. The Challenge of Implementing the Ideal Civic Layout

• A. The Difficulty of Implementation
  • Aristotle acknowledges that while it is easy to theorize and plan the ideal layout of a city, it is far more difficult to implement these ideas in practice. Achieving the ideal city layout requires a combination of chance and prayer because many of the practical realities of city planning are beyond human control.
• B. The Role of Chance in Achieving the Ideal City
  • Aristotle emphasizes that many aspects of creating an ideal city rely on chance rather than human effort alone. This reflects the idea that while one can propose and plan the most effective layout, actually achieving it requires a degree of fortune and favorable circumstances.

Summary of Major Themes

1. Civic Organization and Public Spaces: Aristotle advocates for a city layout where sacred buildings, official boards, and common messes are positioned in a way that reflects both civic and military needs. The city's public spaces should foster a sense of order, virtue, and security.
2. Separation of Leisure and Necessary Markets: Aristotle draws a clear distinction between the leisure-focused “free” market, reserved for citizens, and the necessary market, where trade and essential goods are exchanged. This separation reflects the importance of maintaining distinct spaces for different aspects of public life.
3. Military and Religious Integration: The integration of guardhouses, common messes, and temples throughout both the city and countryside ensures that the entire territory is connected through a unified civic, military, and religious framework. This enhances both defense and spiritual life.
4. Moral and Civic Education: Aristotle emphasizes the importance of officials interacting with younger men to foster a sense of civic responsibility. This encourages a culture of shame and respect for authority, which he sees as essential for maintaining moral order in a free society.
5. Challenges of Practical Implementation: While Aristotle presents a clear vision of the ideal city layout, he recognizes the practical difficulties in achieving this vision. The realization of such a city depends not only on human effort but also on chance and circumstance.

In conclusion, Aristotle’s vision for the city in Politics Book 7, Chapter 12 is one that balances civic order, religious life, and military preparedness. He advocates for thoughtful urban planning that takes into account the needs of citizens, officials, and soldiers, while also acknowledging the challenges of turning this vision into reality.

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