BOOK 7 Chapter 2: I. Introduction: The Question of Happiness in Cities and Individuals

Chapter 2

I. Introduction: The Question of Happiness in Cities and Individuals (1324a1-2)

1. Happiness as a Common Concept
   • Aristotle begins by addressing whether happiness should be understood in the same way for both individuals and cities.
   • He asserts that it is evident that happiness applies similarly to both. All would agree that a city, like an individual, is happy if it is wealthy or virtuous.
   • This implies that political happiness is not distinct from individual happiness but follows the same logic and principles.
2. Agreement on Happiness
   • Regardless of how one defines happiness (wealth, power, or virtue), Aristotle argues that people universally apply these concepts to both individuals and cities.
   • This idea sets the foundation for the broader exploration of what constitutes the best life and, consequently, the best regime, as a city’s happiness is tied to its ability to foster the best way of life for its citizens.

II. Two Critical Questions for Investigation (1324a3-5)

1. Which Way of Life is More Choiceworthy?
   • Aristotle outlines two major questions that require exploration:
     • Is the best way of life one that involves active political participation, or one characterized by withdrawal from politics, like that of foreigners or isolated individuals?
     • Which regime and city structure best foster this way of life?
   • This debate reflects the larger question of the active versus contemplative life and whether political engagement is essential to happiness.
2. Political Study and the Best Regime
   • Aristotle distinguishes between two areas of inquiry: what is choiceworthy for the individual versus what is choiceworthy for the city. While the former is incidental to political study, the latter is the central focus of his current investigation.
   • The best regime, according to Aristotle, is the one that allows citizens to act virtuously and live blessedly. This must be the ultimate aim of any political structure.

III. The Dispute Between the Active and Contemplative Life (1324a6-10)

1. Disagreement Over the Best Way of Life
   • Aristotle points out that even those who agree that the best life is the one accompanied by virtue are divided over whether the political (active) or contemplative life is superior.
   • Some argue that the life of study, removed from external affairs, is the most virtuous. Others believe the political life, involving active engagement in public affairs, is the best.
2. Two Forms of Ambition for Virtue
   • Aristotle identifies two ways of life that have been chosen by those most ambitious for virtue: the political and the philosophical.
   • The political life involves action and public service, while the philosophical life focuses on contemplation and withdrawal from worldly matters.
   • The outcome of this debate has significant implications for how individuals and cities should structure their lives and governments.

IV. The Debate on Rule and Its Justice (1324a11-15)

1. Justice and Rule
   • Some believe that ruling others, especially in the manner of a master over slaves, is unjust and impedes one’s own well-being.
   • Others hold the opposite view, asserting that political rule is essential for the full exercise of virtue, and that justice requires participation in the public sphere.
2. Private vs. Public Virtue
   • There is a tension between the idea that private individuals can be virtuous without engaging in politics and the view that political participation is necessary for the complete realization of virtue.
   • Aristotle explores how different regimes prioritize these aspects of human life, reflecting broader questions about justice and civic duty.

V. The Tyrannical Way of Life (1324b1-5)

1. Tyranny and Happiness
   • Some individuals and cities believe that the happiest life is one that involves domination over others, either through tyrannical rule or military conquest.
   • Aristotle observes that certain cities are organized around this principle, with laws and customs aimed at achieving mastery over others.
   • This raises the question of whether such a way of life can be considered virtuous or just.
2. The Example of Spartan and Cretan Laws
   • Aristotle cites examples from Sparta and Crete, where education and laws are designed with a view to war and conquest.
   • These regimes are structured to produce citizens who can dominate others, but Aristotle implies that this may not lead to true happiness or virtue.

VI. Customs and Laws Promoting War and Conquest (1324b6-12)

1. Cultural Examples of Warlike Virtue
   • Aristotle discusses how various cultures, including the Scythians, Persians, Thracians, and Celts, promote warlike virtues through their laws and customs.
   • In Carthage, for instance, soldiers receive armlets for each campaign, symbolizing their military prowess.
   • Such customs reflect a broader tendency among certain nations to equate happiness with power and domination over others.
2. The Absurdity of Imperial Rule
   • Aristotle critiques the notion that the role of political expertise is to dominate other peoples. He suggests it is absurd to claim that the political art is about imperial mastery over others, whether just or unjust.
   • This challenges the legitimacy of regimes that define happiness in terms of power and conquest rather than virtue and justice.

VII. The Distinction Between Mastery and Political Rule (1324b13-18)

1. Political Rule vs. Mastery
   • Aristotle draws a clear distinction between political rule, which is just and based on law, and mastery, which is unjust and involves domination.
   • Political rule is based on consent and justice, while mastery over others involves coercion, making it incompatible with true political expertise.
2. Justice in Domestic and International Relations
   • Aristotle highlights the inconsistency in the attitudes of certain cities, which seek justice within their own communities but disregard it in their relations with others.
   • This raises the issue of whether political rule should be based on principles of justice that apply both domestically and internationally.

VIII. The Natural Order of Mastery (1325a1-5)

1. Natural vs. Unnatural Rule
   • Aristotle contends that there is a natural distinction between those who are suited for mastery and those who are not.
   • He uses the analogy of hunting, suggesting that one should not attempt to dominate everything, but only those beings that are naturally meant to be mastered.
   • This reinforces his earlier argument that imperial rule over others is not a legitimate aim of political expertise.
2. Limits of Domination
   • Aristotle argues that political rule should be limited to those areas where it is natural and just, rather than seeking to dominate all others indiscriminately.
   • This principle applies to both individuals and cities, guiding how they should engage with their neighbors and broader communities.

IX. The Possibility of a Happy City Without War (1325a6-10)

1. The Happy City Without Conquest
   • Aristotle explores the possibility of a city being happy and virtuous without engaging in war or conquest.
   • A city can achieve happiness through excellent laws and governance, even if it is isolated and not involved in military conflict.
2. The Role of the Legislator
   • The excellent legislator must ensure that a city is organized to promote the good life and happiness for its citizens, without prioritizing war and domination.
   • The legislator’s task is to balance the internal needs of the city with external challenges, but always with a view to justice and virtue.

X. War as a Means, Not an End (1325a11-15)

1. War for the Sake of Peace
   • Aristotle acknowledges that war may sometimes be necessary but argues that it should not be the ultimate aim of a city or its laws.
   • Instead, war should be pursued only as a means to achieve a higher end, such as peace, justice, or the preservation of the city.
2. The Legislator’s Expertise
   • The legislator must consider how to balance the city’s internal organization with its external relations, ensuring that the pursuit of war does not undermine the city’s broader goal of promoting the good life.

XI. The Varied Customs of Nations and the Role of the Legislator (1325a16-18)

1. Diversity of Customs
   • Aristotle notes that different nations have different customs and laws regarding war, power, and virtue. The legislator must understand these variations and tailor policies accordingly.
   • However, the legislator must always aim to guide the city toward the good life, balancing the demands of war with the pursuit of peace and virtue.
2. Final Inquiry Into the Best Regime
   • Aristotle concludes by acknowledging that further investigation is needed to determine the precise nature of the best regime.
   • This inquiry will focus on how political structures can best promote happiness and virtue for both individuals and cities, balancing internal excellence with external challenges.

Summary:

In this chapter, Aristotle addresses the critical question of whether happiness is the same for both individuals and cities, ultimately affirming that it is. He then explores two major debates: the superiority of the political versus the contemplative life, and whether political rule involves just leadership or unjust mastery. Through numerous cultural examples, Aristotle critiques the idea of domination as the highest political aim, emphasizing that true political expertise lies in promoting virtue and happiness within a city. War, while sometimes necessary, is a means to an end and should not be the ultimate goal of a city’s laws. Finally, Aristotle calls for further inquiry into the best regime, focusing on how political structures can best achieve happiness and virtue for all.

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