BOOK 7 Chapter 3 The Debate on the Practice of Virtue and the Best Way of Life

Chapter 3

I. Introduction: The Debate on the Practice of Virtue and the Best Way of Life (1325a1-5)

1. Two Views on the Practice of Virtue
   • Aristotle introduces the central debate: both sides agree that the most choiceworthy way of life is one that is accompanied by virtue, but they differ on how that life should be practiced.
     • One side advocates for a life of freedom from political office, seeing the life of a free person as the most dignified and choiceworthy.
     • The other side claims that the best life involves holding political offices and engaging in public affairs, as they argue that happiness comes through virtuous action, which requires participation in political life.
   • Aristotle notes that both sides are partially correct but also mistaken in some respects, setting up the argument for a nuanced middle ground.

II. The Life of the Free Person vs. the Life of Political Rule (1325a6-10)

1. Freedom and Mastery
   • Aristotle acknowledges the validity of the claim that the life of a free person is better than a life involving mastery over slaves.
   • There is indeed nothing noble about commanding slaves, as such commands are concerned with necessary, menial tasks that do not contribute to noble living.
   • However, Aristotle critiques the conflation of all forms of rule with mastery. He argues that ruling over free persons is fundamentally different from ruling over slaves, as free persons deserve to be ruled with justice and reciprocity, not tyranny.
   • This point echoes earlier discussions in Politics about the natural distinctions between free and slavish individuals.
2. The Nature of Rule Over Free Persons
   • The distance between ruling over slaves and ruling over free persons is as great as the natural distinction between what is free and what is slavish.
   • Political rule over free persons is a more just and honorable form of rule, involving mutual respect and shared participation in governance, rather than the domination inherent in mastery over slaves.
   • This distinction lays the groundwork for Aristotle’s defense of political participation and the active life.

III. The Critique of Praising Inactivity (1325a11-15)

1. Inactivity vs. Action
   • Aristotle refutes the idea that inactivity or withdrawal from political life is superior to active participation in public affairs.
   • Happiness, he argues, is inherently tied to action—particularly the actions of just and moderate individuals, which result in noble deeds.
   • Therefore, a life devoted to virtuous action is better than one focused on inactivity, as the latter misses the opportunity to achieve happiness through active engagement with the world.
2. The Noble Nature of Political Action
   • Political activity, particularly when it involves the pursuit of justice and moderation, allows individuals to complete noble deeds and contributes to their overall happiness.
   • Aristotle suggests that those who argue for complete withdrawal from political life are missing the full potential of virtuous action, which can only be realized through engagement in public affairs.

IV. The Dangers of Pursuing Absolute Authority (1325a16-25)

1. The Temptation of Absolute Rule
   • Aristotle acknowledges that, based on the argument that happiness is tied to action, some might conclude that it is best to seek authority over as many people as possible in order to maximize one’s opportunities for virtuous action.
   • This line of thinking could lead to the conclusion that individuals should deprive others of their autonomy in order to increase their own scope of action, just as a father might disregard the independence of his children or a friend might dominate another friend.
2. The Flawed Logic of Tyranny
   • Aristotle critiques this reasoning, pointing out that such actions would be akin to tyranny, where one uses force and plunder to achieve personal gain.
   • The pursuit of absolute authority over others, even if justified by the desire to engage in noble actions, ultimately leads to moral degradation. Such domination corrupts the ruler and prevents the possibility of virtuous action.
   • Aristotle implies that ruling in this way—dominating others—would lead to actions that are no longer noble, as they would be based on coercion and inequality.

V. The Need for Justice and Equality in Political Rule (1325b1-5)

1. The Moral Limits of Rule
   • Aristotle argues that true nobility and justice in political rule are found in governing and being governed in turn. This is an equal and reciprocal arrangement that respects the natural equality of individuals.
   • Justice requires treating equal people equally, and it is contrary to nature to treat similar people in dissimilar ways. Political rule must be based on equality and justice, not domination.
   • Ruling with virtue requires respecting the natural equality of citizens, and any deviation from this principle undermines the nobility of the ruler’s actions.
2. Following Virtue and Justice in Political Life
   • When one person is superior in virtue and capacity, it is just and noble for others to follow and obey them. However, this superior individual must demonstrate both virtue and the ability to act in a way that benefits the common good.
   • Aristotle emphasizes that the best political life involves following those who are superior in virtue and acting in a way that respects the natural equality of citizens.

VI. The Active Life as the Best Life (1325b6-10)

1. Active vs. Contemplative Life
   • Aristotle concludes that if happiness is tied to virtuous action, then the best way of life, both for individuals and for cities, is the active one.
   • However, he clarifies that the active life is not necessarily limited to political or external actions. There is also room for intellectual activities and contemplative thought, which can be forms of virtuous action in themselves.
   • Both public actions and internal, contemplative actions contribute to happiness, as long as they are guided by virtue.
2. Self-Sufficient Action
   • Actions that are complete in themselves—such as study and contemplation for their own sake—are also considered active and noble.
   • Aristotle argues that these intellectual activities can be more important than external actions aimed at practical results, as they represent the highest form of self-sufficient, virtuous activity.

VII. Internal Activity in Cities and Individuals (1325b11-15)

1. Activity Within Cities
   • Even cities that are isolated and intentionally avoid external conflicts are not necessarily inactive. Within such cities, there can be a rich array of internal activities, such as governance, education, and the cultivation of virtue.
   • The various parts of the city engage in shared activities that contribute to the overall well-being of the city, demonstrating that meaningful action can occur even without external engagement.
2. Internal Activity in Individuals
   • Similarly, individuals do not need to engage in external actions to live an active and virtuous life. Intellectual and moral development within oneself can be a form of noble action.
   • Aristotle suggests that even the gods and the universe engage in their own self-sufficient, internal actions, which contribute to their state of perfection. This idea reinforces the notion that external action is not always necessary for a virtuous and active life.

VIII. Conclusion: The Best Way of Life for Individuals and Cities (1325b16-20)

1. The Universal Nature of the Best Way of Life
   • Aristotle concludes that the best way of life is the same for both individuals and cities. This life is active, involving both virtuous public engagement and self-sufficient intellectual activity.
   • The best life, whether for individuals or cities, is one that balances external actions with internal contemplation, aiming for virtuous action in all forms.
2. The Active Life as the Path to Happiness
   • Ultimately, the active life, in its broadest sense, is the path to happiness for both individuals and political communities. By engaging in virtuous actions, whether in public or private, human beings and cities can achieve the highest form of happiness.

Summary:

In Chapter 3 of Politics Book 7, Aristotle explores the debate between the active and contemplative life, analyzing the arguments for and against political participation. He refutes the idea that inactivity is superior to action, arguing that happiness is tied to virtuous activity. Aristotle distinguishes between unjust mastery and just political rule, emphasizing that the best form of rule respects equality and virtue. He concludes that the active life, encompassing both public action and self-sufficient intellectual pursuits, is the best way of life for both individuals and cities.

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